NOTE: Changes will be posted to this electronic version as they become available. When Section Two: "United States" becomes available it will also be published here.
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[This is the Australia component only; the US component is in the advanced stage of preparation]
Robert H T Smith
Executive Director
Australian Education Office
1601 Massachusetts Avenue NW
Washington, DC, 20036
April 1996
The proposal for a concise monograph presenting a systematic comparison of the higher education systems of Australia and the USA emerged during a discussion with Ms Penelope Amberg (Counsellor, Cultural Affairs. Embassy of Australia, Washington DC) in January 1995. The AEO is grateful to Ms Amberg for her encouragement and for financial support for this project.
Dr Madeleine F Green (Vice-President, American Council on Education - ACE) and Dr Barbara Turlington (Director, Office of International Education, ACE) offered helpful advice on the structure and content of the monograph and also agreed to allow the AEO to draw heavily on the ACE publication, An International Visitor's Guide to U.S. Higher Education..
Much of the background research was conducted by Dr Janice W White of Rockville, Maryland who also prepared the penultimate draft of the monograph. Dr Fiona Q Wood and Ms Anne Gilmore (Department of Administrative, Higher and Adult Education Studies, The University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia) were generous with their editorial advice on the final draft and, with Dr V Lynn Meek (of the same department at UNE) also provided some valuable text material on several topics.
The monograph is issued by the authority of the Australian Education Office, which takes full responsibility for the content and presentation of the monograph.
Robert H T Smith
Executive Director
March 1996
1.1 - The purpose of this monograph is to demonstrate the points of similarity and difference between the higher education systems of Australia and the U.S.A. in a succinct and easy-to-read format. The target audience includes those with an interest in comparative education and in international education (including study abroad and institutional exchange linkages), and interested persons in the higher education community in general.
1.2 - The monograph is organised under the following headings:
1.3 - Some matters of definition should be clarified. In Australia, the term 'higher education' refers to all institutions offering education and/or professional training to at least the first degree level. The term 'tertiary education' is broader in scope, covering the whole range of postsecondary education. This includes the vocational education and training sector which comprises the public system of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) as well as private providers. TAFE institutions typically offer sub-degree awards such as certificate, associate diplomas, and diplomas.
1.4 - In the U.S., the term 'higher education' refers to four year colleges and universities that offer education and/or professional training at the bachelor's, graduate (masters and doctoral) and professional levels. The broader term 'postsecondary education' includes the two-year community, technical, or junior colleges and the for-profit proprietary schools that offer awards less than a bachelor's degree, e.g. associate degrees or certificates. While they are similar in some respects to TAFE institutions in Australia, they differ in that their university transfer activities links them closely with the higher education sector. Thus, community colleges are less of a separate sector than are TAFE institutions in Australia. In the USA, the terms 'higher education' and its more comprehensive counterpart 'postsecondary education' are often used interchangeably.
1.5 - Australia and the USA differ markedly in the locus of responsibility for higher education. Thus, apart from The Australian National University and the University of Canberra, all of Australia's 39 higher education institutions (including the recently-established, publicly-supported university college in Queensland, Sunshine Coast University College - and two private universities, Bond University and the University of Notre Dame Australia) are established under State or Territory legislation (Acts of Parliament). In 1974, funding authority for public universities shifted from the State to the Commonwealth Government, the quid pro quo being that the states relinquished their right to require universities to levy tuition fees. The universities remain under the authority of State legislation but the 36 publicly-supported universities are now funded almost entirely by the Federal (Commonwealth) government. The abolition of the binary system of higher education in 1989 was accompanied by a series of policy initiatives that resulted in the consolidation of the then 21 universities and 45 Colleges of Advanced Education into a smaller number of larger universities (including some with several campuses). The 36 publicly-funded universities in Australia are known as the Unified National System. Whereas higher education institutions are funded almost entirely by the Commonwealth, TAFE is state government funded with Commonwealth augmentation, especially for capital projects.
1.6 - As in Australia, each state in the U.S. has constitutional authority for education, but there is no central authority or control at the federal government level comparable to the Department of Employment, Education and Training (DEET) in Australia. Public institutions in the U.S. are funded primarily by State and local governments. While the federal government does not provide general support funding, it contributes indirectly to higher education institutions, both public and private, through research and other grants and contracts and by grants and loans to students. An authoritative 1994 report identified 3,595 institutions of higher education in the U.S. (1,576 public, 2,019 private). [Carnegie 1994]
2.1 - There are both national and state associations and organisations in the Australian higher education sector. As is the case in the USA, these play several roles, from advocacy for the sector, or some part of it, to the provision of services to members (e.g., information clearinghouse functions for institutional members; and professional development opportunities for individual members).
2.2 - At the national level, there are the following institutional membership organisations:
2.3 - National student organisations are:
2.4 - National membership organisations for university staff are:
2.5 - Some university staff are members of one or other of the 'learned academies'. Such membership (often a 'Fellowship') is a recognised distinction as it is usually by invitation, with members being identified by an electoral-consultative process.
2.6 - In addition, there are many discipline-based associations, organisations and societies, many of which meet regularly under the rubric of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science (ANZAAS). There are also associations representing the various professions (e.g., accounting, engineering, and law).
2.7 - While many of the associations and organisations identified above have state-based chapters and branches, some do not (e.g., the AV-CC - although there are associations of Vice-Chancellors in most states).
3.1 - In 1988, DEET became the central body responsible for the coordination and central administration of the higher education sector, including delivery of funding and associated programs. Previously, the Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission (CTEC) - a statutory body 'arm's length' from the Commonwealth Government - was responsible for these functions. Their transfer to a Commonwealth Government department signalled a significant change in the Federal Government's involvement in higher education: from an indirect, 'arm's length' influence to direct involvement in the operations of the sector. Thus, while the National Board of Employment, Education and Training (NBEET) with the Higher Education Council (HEC) provide sector-specific policy advice to the Government, neither delivers programs or allocates funds. The HEC has a relatively broad policy advising role on higher education matters including funding, institutional profiles, and priority setting. The Australian Research Council (ARC) provides advice on university research activities, and also recommends research grant allocations directly to the Minister.
3.2 - Even though the funding role of the State Governments has greatly diminished in Australia, the State Ministers for Education remain involved in the development of higher education policy through the Australian Education Council (AEC). This group comprises both Commonwealth and State Ministers for Education and provides advice on all education sectors. One of its key roles is to comment on whether government education policy is effective in achieving its goals. The AEC is the forum in which both levels of government can discuss their plans and ensure they have complementary outcomes.
3.3 - The formal governing body of Australia's higher education institutions consists of a group of internal and external members, which is responsible for setting broad policy directions and constitutes the source of legal authority for executive action by the institution's senior management. Members are drawn from government, industry, the community, academic staff, graduates, and students. This body is called a council, senate, or board of governors. It is chaired by an elected Chancellor who also acts as the ceremonial head of the University. The Vice-Chancellor is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), accountable to the governing body and responsible for the academic and administrative operation of the university.
3.4 - The governing bodies of more than half of the publicly-supported universities have fewer than 25 members; indeed, seven have fewer than 20. Five universities have between 25 and 29, and eight universities have 30 or more, of which four have a 35-member governing body (in addition, one has 39 and one has 40). [Hoare 1995] All include both students and staff (both academic and general) as members, but in all cases the number of external members exceeds by a substantial margin the number of internal members.
3.5 - The academic organisational unit in most Australian universities comprises the department or school, often aggregated into faculties (the organisational equivalent of colleges in the USA). Formerly, these bodies elected a Dean, who is responsible for chairing meetings of the faculty at which academic policy was discussed, and for administering the academic programs of the faculty. Increasingly, faculties (or comparable groups of departments and/or schools) are led and managed by a full-time executive, usually but not always a senior academic staff member (and variously called a Dean, Executive Dean, or Pro-Vice-Chancellor) appointed by the governing body and accountable to the Vice-Chancellor. (In some universities, the position of elected Dean has remained in place even when an Executive Dean or equivalent has been appointed; in these cases, the elected Dean's responsibilities normally are confined to the administration of the programs of the Faculty.) Deans and Pro-Vice-Chancellors play a dual role: advisors to the Vice-Chancellor on policy and procedural issues, and executives of their Faculties. While the academic governance of the university is within the purview of the governing body, it normally takes the advice of an academic (or, less frequently, professorial) board on academic matters.
3.6 - The university's management functions are divided between a number of key individuals and committees. The Vice-Chancellor, as Chief Executive Officer, normally is assisted by a senior public officer (University Secretary or Registrar, Business Manager, etc.), and several Pro- and/or Deputy Vice-Chancellors. These frequently comprise a senior executive and policy advising group. Current committee structures in Australian universities reflect a rationalization from more to fewer and from a committee structure which was mainly formed around academic matters to committees which now have a stronger planning and resource allocation focus.
4.1 - Administrative activities in Australian Universities generally fall into one of three main areas: student administration, academic administration, and operational administration. Student administration includes all administrative activities conducted to service the student clientele (e.g., the student services section that coordinates the admission, enrollment, progression and graduation of students as well as counselling, health, housing and welfare generally). Academic administration is not as easily described but generally includes activities associated with the support of teaching and research (e.g., servicing various committees that administer teaching and research policy and programs at the faculty and university level). Finally, operational administration covers those activities that are common to all areas of a university's operations (e.g., personnel and industrial relations, financial and information technology services, property and assets, etc.).
4.2 - The administrative structure of Australian universities resembles the traditional public service bureaucracy, with a vertical hierarchial structure in which each department or school has a small administrative support group. With the adoption of quality management practices and the desire by many institutions to streamline their administration and introduce a corporate management model, many universities are decentralizing much of the administration and are moving to a horizontal organizational structure. Increasingly, Australian universities appoint a Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) who is normally the senior deputy to the Vice-Chancellor, and many have also appointed a Pro- or Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research). Beyond these two portfolios, there is considerable variety in the responsibilities of senior executives.
4.3 - Departments and schools are led by heads or chairs. While there are few instances where these persons are elected to office, the members of the department or school normally are consulted about the present state and future prospects of the unit prior to an appointment being made. Terms are usually three to five years, with no-stated-term appointments being an exception. Department/School heads usually report administratively to a faculty dean, although until quite recently it was not uncommon for them to report dirctly to the Vice-Chancellor. Deans are normally responsible to a Deputy Vice-Chancellor or to the Vice-Chancellor.
5.1 - While all Unified National System (UNS) member institutions formally are self-accrediting, the annual system of education profile discussions with DEET and HEC officials include a discussion of future intentions in relation to present institutional activities and also incorporate some reference to existing courses. Australian universities have a high degree of autonomy on course approval, and a course will only be questioned during the annual profiles discussions if it is outside the institution's previously agreed educational profile and additional government funding is required.
5.2 - With the establishment of the UNS, new and more consistent arrangements for course approval and accreditation needed to be established across the system. The Register of Australian Tertiary Education (RATE) was set up by the AEC in 1990, replacing the Australian Council on Tertiary Awards (ACTA). Unlike ACTA, RATE does not register individual tertiary education award courses. This is now the responsibility of higher education institutions which are empowered by State or Commonwealth legislation to accredit and approve their own courses. RATE has a broad coordination task in the area of course accreditation which involves the development of national guidelines on course classification, length and nomenclature.
5.3 - A recent development related to course accreditation is the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). The AQF attempts to define the various awards in the Australian education system, and to develop a national framework to provide coherence and consistency both across the education sector (secondary, vocational education and training, and higher education), and within individual sectors.
5.4 - Influence on the curriculum by professional associations predates accreditation by State and Commonwealth higher education authorities. Professional accreditation bodies examine the general structure and content of the curriculum as well as academic standards and course length. For example, the Institution of Engineers assessed engineering courses in both the university and advanced education sectors (the latter including institutes of technology) for several decades prior to the reforms of 1988. Instead of assessing individual engineers, the courses provided by universities and colleges are assessed by expert panels. Documentation required for accreditation is similar to that required by the former State accreditation agencies. Professional bodies in medicine, law, accounting and various other areas have also established standards regarding course length, level and content.
6.1 - Publicly supported higher education institutions in Australia are funded almost entirely by the Commonwealth. Private institutions in Australia receive no federal funding or tax exemption. Many changes in the financing of higher education followed the reforms announced in the Federal Government's 1988 policy document, Higher Education: A Policy Statement, (a White Paper circulated by the then-Minister for Employment, Education and Training, The Hon. J S Dawkins). [Dawkins 1988] The Commonwealth government's objectives of greater efficiency and accountability, and stronger relationships between the educational sector and commerce and industry, was prompted by a desire to address pressing economic and social problems. Domestically, these included social inequity, i.e. a lack of participation in education of people from financially disadvantaged backgrounds, including those from rural and isolated areas, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Economic position in the international market was also a concern as Australia was trailing other industrialized countries (such as Canada, Germany, Japana and the USA) in the proportion of graduates in the labour force. [Aldrich-Langen 1990]
6.2 - The White Paper declared the Commonwealth's long term strategy for the allocation of resources to higher education:
6.3 - These objectives were addressed in the 1988 budget decisions immediately following the adoption of the White Paper policies. Real levels of funding were increased. Institutions were given the necessary freedom to become more entrepreneurial (e.g., by charging fees to international students and charging fees for postgraduate courses designed to upgrade vocational skills of people already employed). Single line or block operating grants replaced a number of distinct components. Rolling triennial funding was reestablished commencing with the 1989-1991 triennium.
6.4 - A new funding framework was developed based on an assessment of the relative costs of disciplines and areas of study within Australia's higher education institutions. The Relative Funding Model (RFM) was designed to provide a more equitable funding base for the higher education system and to eliminate the distortions in funding rates between institutions that had developed from historical, incremental funding. Institutions were to be funded on the basis on what they did rather than on historical precedent or arbitrary classification.
6.5 - The inevitable problem associated with the Government's adoption of an expansionary policy was the funding of additional higher education places. While an increase in government expenditure was part of the strategy, other important initiatives included:
6.6 - The Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) was introduced on January 1, 1989 for all Australian citizens and permanent resident students enrolled full-time in a standard program of study at Commonwealth-funded higher education institutions. The annual course contribution is adjusted each year in accordance with the Higher Education Operating Grants Index. The contribution for a standard full-time year of study in 1995 was $2,442, which represents about one fifth of the average cost of a place. [DEET 1995] The HECS arrangements permit payment of the contribution 'up-front' with a 25% discount, or deferment and repayment through the taxation system when taxable income reaches an indexed minimum threshold level related to average earnings for persons in the labor force (in 1994-95, $26,853). Below this annual taxable income threshold, no HECS repayment is required. On June 1 each year, the outstanding debt over one year old is indexed in line with movements in the Consumer Price Index. [DEET 1995]
6.7 - The Government has encouraged universities to increase the proportion of funding that is derived from non-government sources, with private industry funding for research being strongly promoted. Thus, while 90% of the university sector's 1981 funding came from government sources, the proportion had fallen to 60% in 1993.
7.1 - The Australian Constitution gives responsibility for education to the States. However, the Commonwealth Parliament has assumed responsibility for funding higher education under Section 96 of the Constitution, thus empowering it to provide financial assistance to the States on such terms and conditions as the Parliament may determine. The number of places for higher education students thus may be determined by the Commonwealth through its funding mechanism. The distribution of places across fields of study may also be controlled, especially as national priority areas are specified.
7.2 - Because there is only a very small private sector in Australian higher education (only two relatively small universities, Bond University on the Gold Coast of Queensland, and the University of Notre Dame Australia in Fremantle, WA), a major effect of establishing a limit on the number of funded places through government budgets is that significant numbers of qualified new applicants for higher education are refused admission to the program of their choice and, frequently, to any course (such students are admissable but not selected). The shortfall of funded places is not distributed uniformly across all fields of study. For example, qualified applicants for admission to such programs as architecture, law, medicine and physiotherapy face keen competition, while the aggregate available supply of places across all institutions in science and technology exceeds the demand by qualified students. There are also geographic inequities regarding the distribution of places and demand. Due to recent population movements, particularly to the state of Queensland and to northern NSW from southern states, there tend to be higher levels of unmet demand for university places in these areas. This problem is further exacerbated by traditional immobility: thus, it is the exception rather than the rule for an Australian student to move interstate to study. In order to correct this imbalance, the Commonwealth Government has directed recent growth funding to institutions in these areas.
7.3 - With regard to university admission, there is reciprocity between the States and students who have earned matriculated status at a university in their home state are considered to have equivalent status in the other States and Territories. Traditionally, admission to a university was solely on the basis of academic merit. Recently, schemes have been introduced which allow for consideration based on special circumstances and a range of criteria, such as mature-age entry, an admission category that aims to encourage and assist mature-age students (generally defined as age 23 or older) to undertake university study. Each institution develops criteria for special admissions and may require students to complete special entry examinations. Such schemes are used to increase access and participation by previously excluded groups. The results of special entry students are prorated for inclusion in the selection pool of students with regularly determined aggregate scores. The funding incentives from the Commonwealth have accelerated the provision of special entry programs for disadvantaged groups such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the rural poor, etc. Applicants who have already attempted postsecondary study and are seeking to transfer are considered individually by each institution to which they apply. Tertiary transfer students (e.g., from TAFE) usually must compete for a place with new entrants.
7.4 - The Commonwealth Government can manipulate the allocation of university places to various student groups not only through funding special admission schemes but also by specifying certain priorities for new student admission. An example was the specification of 'school leaver targets' which required universities to ensure that a certain percentage of the first year intake was drawn from recent secondary school leavers (in US terms, high school graduates). This target was dropped in 1996 and replaced by a category 'new to higher education', which is particularly relevant to mature-age students.
7.5 - Despite the various mature-age and other special schemes, the majority of admissions decisions for secondary school leavers are based on the results of Year 12 (i.e., high school graduation) examinations. Virtually all universities require applicants to present an aggregate or tertiary entrance score which always involves some externally standardized testing across the relevant State or Territory as a whole. However, there is not a standardised way of calculating these aggregate, tertiary entrance scores.
7.6 - Except for Tasmania and the territories (Australian Capital Territory, ACT; and Northern Territory, NT), all States have centers which process applications for admission to courses offered at tertiary institutions. Applicants submit one application to a center on which they list as many as eight courses of study (usually at different institutions) in order of preference. Applicants are ranked by the application processing centers according to their aggregate or tertiary entrance scores, and they are selected for a course of study according to the admissions policy at particular institutions. Each university sets its own admissions policy with regard to course prerequisites and the minimum aggregate score regardless of quotas.
7.7 - Matriculation refers to minimum eligibility standards for admission to an undergraduate program. In theory, if there were no university quotas, all matriculants would be admitted to the preferred program and university. Due to there being a finite number of funded places, and to fact that the demand is greater than supply of university places, some matriculants will not be offered a place. Further, admission to many programs requires completion of prerequisite subjects at senior (Year 11 and 12) secondary level. There are therefore wide variations in required entrance scores within a single institution since a specific quota (or 'cut-off') for admission is specified for each course rather than for the university as a whole. Thus, aggregate or tertiary entrance scores in specific subjects, as well as overall aggregates, are important in the selection process.
7.8 - Graduate admission is handled by each university individually. In most cases, a four-year honors degree or equivalent is required for admission to a postgraduate program of study. Students with an ordinary or three-year pass degree are required to complete satisfactorily a 'preliminary' or 'master's qualifying' year before being eligible for admission to graduate study. [Aldrich-Langen 1990; DEET 1993] In many full-fee postgraduate courses, the requirements for admission are becoming more flexible, with work experience becoming an important selection criterion.
8.1 - The implementation of institutional (and Government) objectives depends largely upon the teaching and research competencies of faculty, the key resource in any university. The period from 1982 to 1991 was one of substantial growth and major structural change in Australian higher education. The dismantling of the binary divide between universities and colleges of advanced education, and industrial reforms in the wider community, introduced pressures for change in prevailing attitudes, processes, structures and functions as they related to higher education faculty.
8.2 - There has been a reconsideration of the role and functions of faculty and the appropriate balance between teaching and research functions. In the UNS, both teaching and research are core academic functions. The majority of faculty are now engaged in both teaching and research. A 1991 Award Restructuring process, which included the specification of Position Classification Standards for faculty ranks, carried government funding for faculty salary increases. The Position Classification Standards specified teaching and research functions appropriate for academic recruitment and promotion for each level.
8.3 - The basic academic functions and the level to which they are to be performed at each academic grade were set out in the award restructuring agreement. The Academic Levels are as follows:
An increasing level of skill is required in each of the functions in accordance with progression through the academic ranks. These skill levels are defined in general terms, with qualifications and experience in teaching and research at Levels A through D being included in what is expected of a Level E academic staff member (the latter involving the provision of leadership and fostering excellence in research, teaching, and policy development in the university and the general community).
8.3 - Tenure was also an issue in the award restructuring process. Both the unions and the universities recognised that the imbalance between continuing and non-continuing staff should be addressed. It was agreed that the proportion of total academic staff in non-continuing employment should be broadly established at 30 per cent system-wide, with this proportion to be reviewed every triennium. As a result, the proportion of faculty with continuing appointments decreased from 81 per cent in 1982 to 61 per cent in 1991.
8.4 - The Australian academic workforce is ageing compared with the general work force. The period of rapid growth in higher education up to the mid-1970s resulted in a substantial 'bulge' in the age distribution of academic staff. Due to recruitment in times of rapid sectoral growth, there is now a higher proportion of academic staff in the 45-55 year old age group than was the case in the early 1980s. In the decade between 1981 and 1991, the proportion of faculty with higher degrees increased significantly, and now almost three quarters of Australian university faculty members hold a higher degree.
8.5 - A significant trend during the decade to 1991 was the increase in the number of female academic staff members, with twice as many women in full- and part-time positions in 1991 compared with 1985. Although the proportion of women in academic positions has increased, they are still clustered at the more junior ranks. In 1991, only 9.8% of women were in ranks above senior lecturer level (albeit up from 6% in 1985). Resignation rates were higher for women than men, perhaps due to the previous trend for women to leave the workforce for family reasons. The possession of tenure is concentrated among older, more senior male faculty. As more women enter and remain in academic careers, the balance can be expected to change. [DEET 1993]
9.1 - Australia has moved from an elite to a mass higher education system with an emphasis on access, equity, and diversity. Participation and growth figures demonstrate this shift with a 64% increase in the total number of students attending higher education institutions in the decade to 1992. The policy of inclusion is incorporated in various funding incentives, national priorities, and institutional performance standards. The Australian university system has changed from one which served an intellectual and social elite before World War II to one in which the 1994 participation rate for the 15-19 age cohort was 10% (17-19 year olds, 152 per thousand; 17-24, 124 per thousand; and 17-64, 47 per thousand). [DEET 1995a]
9.2 - The 1985 policy on equity and participation reaffirmed and amplified the 1984 commitment by the Commonwealth to improve access to previously excluded groups. The particular groups which currently are identified as disadvantaged with respect to access to higher education include:
Expansion of the higher education system was central to the strategy for increasing the access of these groups. By locating many of the additional places at universities in outer metropolitan, regional, and rural institutions, access was facilitated for many previously excluded groups.
9.3 - Absolute growth and related policy changes in the areas of school retention and student income support policies were deemed necessary to address inequities. Secondary school retention rates were less than 40 per cent at the beginning of the 1980s when it had been widely assumed that there was relatively little difference between the propensity of different socio-economic groups to enter higher education on completion of Year 12. The target of 65% school retention by 1992, set by the Federal Government in 1986, was exceeded by 1990. A strategy that helped to meet this objective was the introduction in 1987 of the new student income support scheme, AUSTUDY, designed to encourage secondary students to remain in school as well as to provide greater benefits to tertiary students. [DEET 1993]
9.4 - Several special measures and schemes were introduced to increase participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. The Aboriginal Participation Initiative introduced in the 1985-87 triennium created 3,000 additional places in higher education institutions, mainly in teacher education courses. Funding was also allocated for measures such as the Aboriginal Education Strategic Initiatives Program (AESIP) which was designed to assist Aboriginal students with their studies and provide support services to aid in retention. [DEET 1993] As a result of these and subsequent initiatives, the participation of Aboriginal people has increased substantially, albeit from a very low base. Participation remains is concentrated in a small number of fields, especially education, and the numbers studying in other professional programs is limited.
9.5 - Since 1991, funding for equity in higher education has been based on performance against targets established in institutional equity plans. Institutions have considerable discretion in the use of equity funds to meet institutional equity objectives. Commonwealth funds through the Higher Education Equity Program (HEEP) amounted to $5.1 million a year for 1994 and subsequent years. These equity grants are paid directly to institutions as part of their operating grants under HEEP. [DEET 1993]
9.6 - More students are being admitted to the universities under special entry schemes for mature-age students. In 1991, while 64% of mature-age students entered the university through normal entry requirements, the remainder used mature-age entry or other special schemes designed to enhance access. There is a correlation between a student's age and the type of enrollment chosen: the older a student, the more likely that he or she will enrol part-time or externally. Since World War II, more than one third of all Australian students studied part-time or by distance education (externally). [DEET 1993]
9.7 - Women comprised fewer than 20% of bachelor degree students in 1949 and 30% of enrollments in 1969. But during the 1970's, female participation accelerated dramatically, surpassing that of men in 1987. By 1991, 55% of all new students were women, and women accounted for 49% of postgraduate enrollments (women tend to be concentrated at lower levels of postgraduate study than males). Women and men are by no means evenly distributed across major fields of study, and women remain significantly underrepresented in agriculture, architecture, dentistry, and especially engineering. Female enrollments are concentrated in education, arts, nursing and other non-medical health studies. These fields accounted for about 66% of female enrollments in 1990. [DEET 1993]
10.1 - In many first degree programs - especially in arts/social sciences, and in science - Australian students specialize to a greater extent than do their counterparts at U.S. colleges and universities. The concepts of breadth, distribution and general education requirements are not as explicit in Australian first degrees as in U.S. bachelor degrees. However, most Australian students study subjects outside their major field for two or three years. This places the major subject in context by providing a broadening exposure to cognate disciplines and fields of study. [Aldrich-Langen 1990]
10.2 - More traditional generalist (i.e., arts/social science and science) programs usually require nine or ten subjects for the three-year, pass degree: four subjects studied for one year of which three will be studied for two year and two for three years. While there are variations in this nine or ten subject pattern, most Australian university programs are based on the fundamental principle of one or two major subjects, each studied for three years, supplemented by other breadth subjects. This structure, which includes at most two third-year courses, allows students time to concentrate on the preparation of written or experimental assignments during the third year. [DEET 1993]
10.3 - Prior to the 1988 reforms, each university used a different method to calculate units of study. Credits, points, and units did not represent consistently comparable specified hours each week of classroom or laboratory work as is the case in the U.S. However, they did provide clues to the weight of each individual course or subject in the overall degree program. Some subjects that comprise a single module of study extend over the entire academic year, while others - particularly science and technological subjects - are broken up into more discrete modules that are examined at the end of each term or semester.
10.4 - The Higher Education Council of NBEET, wishing to preserve the flexibility and autonomy of the higher education sector, but at the same time desiring a consistent national framework for both length and nomenclature for individual award courses, advocated a definition of 'credit unit' to indicate student learning time, so that transfer of credit from course to course and institution to institution would be facilitated. Noting that the concept of a standard length for award courses depended on course structure and the length of the academic year (which, in Australia, extends from February to November), the HEC defined a standard semester as 14 weeks of 'contact' time, excluding practical experience and assessment periods. The standard academic year consists of two semesters. At some institutions, summer terms allow students to progress through an award course more quickly. In Australian universities, instruction normally comprises a combination of two or three lectures a week, laboratory work, required readings, several essays each semester, and weekly meetings with a tutor who may be a postgraduate student pursuing master or doctoral degree studies.
10.5 - The majority of students in Australian higher education institutions, nearly 70%, are enrolled in bachelor degree programs, which vary in length from three to six years. Bachelor degrees normally take three years of full-time study (or part-time equivalent). Those that also equip students with the practical skills and techniques needed for professional practice tend to be longer (e.g., architecture, engineering, law and medicine). Since the universities are autonomous, each plans its courses of study independently and a course or subject at one university may consist of three years, while at another four. However, as a general rule, the length of courses in the various disciplines of study is fairly similar. [DEET 1993]
10.6 - Bachelor degree programs may lead to a pass, three-year degree award, or a four-year honors degree. Specialization and advanced instruction, particularly in research methods, is available in honors programs occupying the fourth year of study. In professional courses longer than three years, outstanding students may be granted awards 'with honors.' The system of honors awards varies between disciplines and fields of study and, to some extent, between institutions. An honors degree is usually a prerequisite for admission to postgraduate study. Students with only an ordinary or pass degree are required to complete a 'preliminary' or 'masters qualifying year' before beginning graduate study. Honors and pass degree differ also in disciplinary identity; thus, students pursuing honors degrees are encouraged to develop a close association with the department or school in which they are enrolled, and are assigned a faculty supervisor or mentor in the department (as is the case in most US graduate programs). Also, honors students study their major subject to a greater degree of specialization than do candidates for an ordinary or pass degree.
10.7 - In addition to bachelor degrees, there are four types of graduate courses offered in Australian higher education institutions:
10.8 - Graduate certificate courses fulfill specific vocational purposes, by broadening or developing professional skills and knowledge in specific areas of study or by introducing students to these areas. They usually require half a year of full-time study or equivalent and are offered in a large variety of modes to accommodate time constraints of the professionals who enrol in them. Graduate certificates often form half of the program for a graduate diploma. Graduate diplomas either build on professional knowledge previously obtained through study and work, or develop new academic or professional expertise. Both graduate certificates and graduate diplomas are increasingly offered in modular forms and provide valuable continuing professional education with flexible program entry and exit points.
10.9 - Masters degrees may be done entirely by coursework; entirely by research; or by some combination of coursework and research. Masters degrees by coursework (with more than 50% coursework) often articulate with postgraduate diplomas. They tend to build on professional experience and extend professional and disciplinary knowledge at an advanced level. Masters degrees by research (with coursework less than 50%) often prepare students for further research study at the doctorate level and may be entirely by research.
10.10 - The most common doctoral degree is the PhD or Doctor of Philosophy, awarded after at least three years of full-time study or equivalent with the (frequently external) successful examination of a thesis (or dissertation) comprising a substantial original and independent piece of research. Advanced practice in particular professions (e.g., architecture, education and law), may lead to a professional doctorate or be accommodated in an institution's PhD program. [DEET 1993] The practice of submitting a substantial corpus of published research work for a higher doctorate persists, although it is perhaps more common in medicine and the sciences than in the humanities and social sciences.
11.1 - From participation in the Colombo Plan immediately after World War II to the award in the 1970's and 1980's of substantial numbers of university places to overseas students - especially those from Asia-Pacific - Australian universities have had an active involvement with international students. The establishment of the International Program of Australian Universities and Colleges (IDP) in 1970 by the then AV-CC and the Association of Directors and Principals of Colleges of Advanced Education (ACDP), gave the higher education sector a body through which to conduct contract project work overseas, again especially in the countries of Asia and the Pacific. This activity was placed in a new and different context by two Commonwealth Government reports in the early 1980's, both of which advocated the export of education services through the enrolment of international students in Australian universities for a fee. This activity commenced in the mid-1980's, and expanded rapidly, so that in 1995, there were approximately 50,000 international students enrolled in Australian universities.
11.2 - Several developments in the 1990's consolidated the role of Australian universities as attractive destinations for overseas students. First, the establishment by IDP of Australian Education Centers in several Asia-Pacific countries provided a one-stop shop for students to obtain information about courses, enrolment procedures, and student visas. Second, the University Mobility in Asia-Pacific (UMAP) program was established with the support of the then-Minister for Employment, Education and Training. Under UMAP, opportunities for students and faculty from universities in Australia and Asia-Pacific countries to study elsewhere in the region were provided. Indeed, much of the early discussion was directed towards the removal of impediments to such study opportunities. Finally, the Commonwealth Government resolved late in 1993 to establish the Australian International Education Foundation (AIEF) as Australia's generic promotion organisation for the entire Australian education and training sector. The AIEF was a major initiative as it increased substantially the funds available for offshore marketing and promotion: thus, 'industry' contributions (i.e., subscriptions to the AIEF by universities) were to be matched 2:1 by the Government.
11.3 - The Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AV-CC) maintains strong international links. Thus, it is a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU) through which Australian universities contribute to and participate in several programs involving students and faculty from universities in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. The AV-CC also works in liaison with the International Association of Universities through which it maintains contacts with universities throughout the world. The AV-CC's foundation work in establishing UMAP - for which it maintains a coordinating role - has already been mentioned. In 1995, the AV-CC became an Associate Member of the newly-formed Association of Universities of Asia and the Pacific. It also provides secretariat support for the Asia and Pacific Higher Education Network (APHEN) which assists research collaboration amongst universities in the region. Finally, the AV-CC and its member universities (37 of the 39) have issued two Codes of Ethical Practice, one on the provision of education to international students, the other on the offshore provision of education and educational services.
11.4 - At the institutional level, these initiatives are complemented by mission statements that declare a commitment to internationalisation, involving both the attraction of overseas students to Auatralia and the encouragement of Australian students to enrich their undergraduate experience by studying overseas. A significant component of this activity is pursued through formal links established with overseas universities: in 1995, there were approximately 300 such links with more than 200 colleges and universities in the USA.
12.1 - The following six issues have been identified:
12.2 - Delivery of Higher Education Opportunities
Australian higher education opportunities are available 39 institutions. A substantial proportion of these opportunities are delivered to recent high school graduates ('school leavers') who study full-time on campus. Australia was a pioneer in adopting distance education techniques, and more recently has embraced Open Learning as an approach to the design and delivery of higher education opportunities. While the Commonwealth provided A$52 million for an Open Learning initiative over the 1993-95 [DEET 1995b], at issue is the appropriate funding for these alternative delivery initiatives at a time when higher education funding may not enjoy much growth. The quality and integrity of the programs delivered in this way is also an issue, as there is still an attitude in Australia that sees on-campus, full-time study as the conventional mainstream.
12.3 - Diversity Within a Mass Higher Education System
With 604,000 students in higher education (30% of the age cohort) - reflecting an increase of 73% since 1983 - Australia has entered an era of mass higher education. Diversity (particularly in terms of program mix and university mission) rather than uniformity was to have been a natural adjunct to this growth in the higher education system. In a relatively small higher education system, the issue is the degree to which diversity can be ensured without central direction and regulation. The proliferation of MBA and Law programs are cases in point. Another indication is the near-universal objective of the new, post-1988 universities to develop the characteristics of a research university.
12.4 - Funding and Competition
Since the reforms of the late-1980's, the funding of Australian universities has become increasingly competitive and commercialised. While Commonwealth Government expenditures on higher education exceed A$5 billion, non-government income from a variety of sources is now A$2 billion (including substantial amounts from international student fees), up from a fraction of that amount a decade ago. The universities must deal with pressures arising from funding diversity and public accountability. This is compounded by the fact that universities compete for Government-funded places and for research grants and contracts to a far greater degree than in the past.
12.5 - Governance and Management
The 1988 Policy Statement [Dawkins, 1988] included such initiatives in governance and management as a substantial reduction in the size of governing bodies, and in the authority and responsibilities of Vice-Chancellors as Chief Executive Officers. These were related to a broader concern about accountability, efficiency and effectiveness. Interest in this general area continues and indeed, was the subject of a recent review by a Committee appointed by the Minister for Employment, Education and Training [Hoare 1995]. The issue for the Australian higher education system is the appropriate size, composition and role of governing bodies, especially vis-a-vis the role and responsibilities of the Vice-Chancellor but also with respect to the academic governance processes and structures within each university. It also relates to the appropriate balance between traditional academic governance processes that emphasise collegiality, and the development of a deliberate managerial culture within the university.
12.6 - Industrial Relations
Industrial relations in Australia have long rested on the proposition that the benefits of productivity were best distributed centrally, and federal as distinct from local awards (i.e., collectrive agreements) were the norm. With deregulation occurring in much of the economy since the early 1980's, there has been considerable pressure for award restructuring (aimed at removing constraints on productivity), reduction in the number of unions through amalgamation, and enterprise as distinct from national bargaining. These developments have placed considerable strain on the relationship between the university as employer (often represented by the Vice-Chancellor) and the staff, academic and general, of the university. Relations between the universities and their staff (academic and general) previously were conducted largely outside the formal industrial relations arena. Academic and general staff are now represented by a national union (NTEU) and the universities as employers are represented by the AHEIA. At issue is an appropriate resolution of the frequently - but not always complementary - objectives of these two groups so that the integrity of the learning and research environment is not compromised.
12.7 - Quality Assurance and Accountability
The formal quality assurance movement began in Australian higher education in the early 1990's with the appropriation of sum equivalent to 2% of the higher education operating grant to assist quality initiatives. The Committee Quality Assurance in Higher Education (CQAHE) - appointed in 1993 by and reporting to the Minister for Employment, Education and Training - conducted national reviews in each of the last three years, 1993-95, that were guided by the principle that quality assurance should be based on a reward system linked to the achievement of excellence in specified areas. The first review was general in scope; the second focussed on teaching; and the third, in 1995, targeted research and community service. The results of all three reviews were made public. At issue in Australia (and elsewhere) is how to establish and implement consistent, system-wide quality assurance and other accountability procedures without creating incentives for initiatives that will compromise diversity.
12.8 - Inter-Sectoral Developments and Relationships
An enduring Australian policy objective has been the provision of an environment in which the work-force will be adptable, creative and multi-skilled. The pursuit of this objective underlay the expansion of higher education that commenced in the 1980's. However, there has been increasing attention paid to vocational education and training - much of which is conducted in the Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector - in recent years. Present policy is more favourably disposed to expansion in the TAFE sector rather than the higher education sector. The higher education sector has recognised the need to develop appropriate articulation relationships with TAFE institutions and with the sector generally, not only in terms of program content but also in terms of delivery mechanisms. The issues for the higher education sector are the maintenance of a level of support for higher education consistent with Australia's social and economioc expectations; and the development of genuinely constructive curriculum and other links with the TAFE sector.
Aldrich-Langen, Caroline 1990: The Educational System of Australia - An Update of the 1983 World Education Series Volume (Washington, DC: American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers)
AV-CC 1996: University Facts 1996 (Canberra: AV-CC)
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching 1994: A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education (Princeton, New Jersey: Carnegie)
Dawkins, the Hon John S 1988: Higher Education - A Policy Statement (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service - AGPS)
DEET 1993: National Report on Australia's Higher Education Sector (Canberra: AGPS)
DEET 1995a: Higher Education Participation Rates Australia 1994 (Canberra: AGPS)
DEET 1995b: Directory of Commonwealth Higher Education Functions 1995 (Canberra: AGPS)
Hoare, David 1995: Higher Education Management Review - Report of the Committee of Inquiry (Canberra: AGPS)
Wran, Neville 1988: Report of the Committee on Higher Education Funding (Canberra: AGPS)